OBJECTIVES

Describe characteristics of sudden unexpected infant deaths (SUID) occurring on shared or nonshared sleep surfaces.

METHODS

We examined SUID among residents of 23 US jurisdictions who died during 2011 to 2020. We calculated frequencies and percentages of demographic, sleep environment, and other characteristics by sleep surface sharing status and reported differences of at least 5% between surface sharing and nonsharing infants.

RESULTS

Of 7595 SUID cases, 59.5% were sleep surface sharing when they died. Compared with nonsharing infants, sharing infants were more often aged 0 to 3 months, non-Hispanic Black, publicly insured, found supine, found in an adult bed or chair/couch, had a higher number of unsafe sleep factors present, were exposed to maternal cigarette smoking prenatally, were supervised by a parent at the time of death, or had a supervisor who was impaired by drugs or alcohol at the time of death. At least 76% of all SUID had multiple unsafe sleep factors present. Among surface-sharing SUID, most were sharing with adults only (68.2%), in an adult bed (75.9%), and with 1 other person (51.6%). Surface sharing was more common among multiples than singletons.

CONCLUSIONS

Among SUID, surface sharing and nonsharing infants varied by age at death, race and ethnicity, insurance type, presence of unsafe sleep factors, prenatal smoke exposure, and supervisor impairment. Most SUID, regardless of sleep location, had multiple unsafe sleep factors present, demonstrating the need for comprehensive safe sleep counseling for every family at every encounter.

What’s Known on This Subject:

Sleep surface sharing, soft bedding, and prone sleep position are risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome and sudden unexpected infant death (SUID). The prevalence of surface sharing ranges from 34% to 64% among living infants and about 50% among SUID.

What This Study Adds:

Compared with nonsurface sharing infants, infants who shared a surface at the time of death were more often younger, non-Hispanic Black, and publicly insured. However, most SUID, regardless of surface sharing status, were in unsafe sleep environments.

Sharing a sleep surface with an infant is discouraged because it increases the risk of sleep-related sudden unexpected infant death (SUID), including sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), accidental suffocation and strangulation in bed, and other ill-defined and unknown causes.1,6 SUID includes infants <1 year old who die suddenly and unexpectedly without an obvious cause before investigation7 and accounts for about 3400 deaths annually in the United States.8 In 2016 to 2017, 37% of US infants surface shared and 54% of infants in the SUID Case Registry were surface sharing at the time of death.6 Findings from a meta-analysis showed surface sharing was associated with an almost threefold risk of SIDS.1 Surface sharing is associated with an increased odds for both sleep-related suffocation and unexplained infant death (adjusted odds ratios: 2.5 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.1–6.0] and 2.1 [95% CI 1.4–3.2] respectively).6 Surface sharing, especially on a couch or armchair, increases risk of unintentional suffocation by soft bedding, wedging or entrapment, and overlay.3,9,10 Moreover, surface sharing in combination with parental smoking and maternal alcohol or drug use greatly increases SIDS risk.11 

In addition to surface sharing, independent risk factors for SIDS and other sleep-related infant deaths include nonsupine sleep position, an inclined or soft sleep surface, sleeping with soft, loose bedding, or objects, not breastfeeding, overheating, and prenatal or environmental exposure to tobacco smoke.4,6 Among SUID with a complete investigation and documented sleep environment information, 98.5% occur in an unsafe sleep environment12; about half of SUID occur on a shared sleep surface.13,14 

Understanding differences and similarities between SUID occurring on shared and nonshared sleep surfaces may inform safe infant sleep counseling, messaging, and future research. We describe characteristics and circumstances of SUID by surface sharing status, including infant demographics, birth characteristics, sleep environment, other characteristics, and SUID Case Registry Classification System category and suffocation mechanism. In addition, for surface-sharing SUID, we describe found location and person(s) sharing the sleep surface. Finally, because multiple births are overrepresented among SUID,15 we explore surface sharing and other sleep environment characteristics by plurality.

We used data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s SUID Case Registry (the Registry),16 a multijurisdictional, population-based surveillance system. The Registry builds on existing child death review programs and protocols and has been previously described.16,18 Briefly, multidisciplinary child death review teams review and compile information on child deaths from multiple sources (eg, death certificates, autopsy reports, medical records) and make prevention recommendations based on their findings. Review information and recommendations are entered into the National Fatality Review-Case Reporting System (NFR-CRS).17 

We studied 8192 SUID that occurred during 2011 to 2020 among residents of Registry jurisdictions including: Alaska; Arizona; San Francisco County, California; Colorado; Delaware; Georgia; Cook County, Illinois; Indiana; Kentucky; Louisiana; Maryland; Michigan; Minnesota; New Hampshire; New Jersey; New Mexico; Nevada; Pennsylvania; Tennessee; Utah; Tidewater Region of Virginia; Pierce County, Washington; and Wisconsin. SUID included deaths with any of the following causes reported on the death certificate: unknown, undetermined, SIDS, SUID, unintentional sleep-related asphyxia, suffocation, or strangulation, unspecified suffocation, cardiac or respiratory arrest without other well-defined causes, or ill-defined causes with potentially contributing unsafe sleep factors. Intentional homicides were excluded. We defined unsafe sleep as prone or side position, shared sleep surface, sleep surface other than a crib or bassinet, any bedding other than a fitted sheet, or soft objects in the sleep area.5 We excluded cases that had not undergone Registry data quality control procedures19 (n = 153) and those with missing or unknown information about surface sharing (n = 444). After exclusions, 7595 SUID remained.

Infant demographic and birth characteristics included age at death, sex, race and ethnicity, gestational age at birth, insurance type, and plurality. Sleep environment included infant’s found position and location, presence of soft bedding (excluding the sleep surface), and number of unsafe sleep factors other than surface sharing (including soft bedding, not in a crib, and non-supine position), and, among surface sharing infants, with whom the infant was surface sharing. Other characteristics included exposure to prenatal maternal cigarette smoking, ever breastfed, primary caregiver a parent, caregiver age, supervisor a parent, supervisor impaired by drugs or alcohol at time of death, open child protective services case for the infant, and having a crib or bassinet in the infant’s home. Variables are described in the NFR-CRS data dictionary.20 

Infants were designated as “sharing” if they were sleeping with another person (ie, infant, child, or adult) or animal on any surface (eg, adult bed, crib, couch) at time of death. The NFR-CRS data dictionary guides child death review team members to ascertain infant race and ethnicity from the death certificate.20,21 We acknowledge that race and ethnicity are social constructs and not genetic or biological categories.22,23 We choose to report race and ethnicity because race and racism are embedded in our culture, societal structures, and systems supporting and affecting families and their understanding and implementation of safe sleep practices. We refer to cribs, bassinets, and portable cribs as “crib.” We quantified “unsafe sleep factors other than surface sharing” by combining multiple fields (ie, objects in the child’s sleep environment, found location, and found position). Because evidence about the safety of in-bed sleepers is limited, we grouped infants found in portable bassinets placed on an adult bed (n < 6) as “adult bed” for found location. Although “fed human milk” is more inclusive, we used “breastfed” for consistency with the NFR-CRS. “Primary caregiver” is the person who had responsibility for the infant’s care a majority of the time.20 “Supervisor” is the person who had responsibility for the infant’s care at time of death.20 “Parent” includes biological, adoptive, or step-parent.

The Registry Classification System category and suffocation mechanism were assigned by trained Registry staff using the SUID Case Registry Classification System and Algorithm.12,24 We collapsed the categories unexplained-incomplete case information and unexplained-no autopsy or death scene investigation into unexplained-incomplete information.

Among SUID, we calculated frequencies and percentages by surface sharing status for infant demographic and birth characteristics, sleep environment, other characteristics, Registry Classification System category, and, for SUID categorized as explained or possible suffocation, suffocation mechanism. We calculated χ-square tests of independence to determine if each variable was associated with surface sharing status. To limit the chance of erroneous associations, we excluded missing results from the χ-square analyses. Magnitude or direction of associations were not estimated. Most variables were significantly associated with surface sharing status (P < .05). In large study populations such as ours, statistical significance can emerge with small quantitative differences, complicating interpretation.25 Thus, we highlight clinically meaningful differences of at least 5 percentage points between sharing and nonsharing infants. We conducted analyses using SAS 9.3 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Each jurisdiction signed a data-use agreement allowing inclusion of de-identified, aggregated data.

Of the 7595 SUID, 59.5% were sleep surface sharing and 40.5% were not at time of death (Table 1).

TABLE 1

Infant and Other Characteristics Among Sudden Unexpected Infant Death by Surface Sharing Status, SUID Case Registry, 2011 to 2020

Percent Distribution by Surface Sharing Status
SharingNonsharingPa
 n n  
Overall 4520 59.5 3075 40.5  
Infant demographic and birth characteristics  
Age in months <.001 
 0–3 3307 73.2 1744 56.7  
 4–6 903 20.0 940 30.6  
 7–<12 310 6.9 391 12.7  
Infant sex <.001 
 Male 2536 56.1 1844 60.0  
 Female 1983 43.9 1228 39.9  
Infant race and ethnicity <.001 
 Non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native 118 2.6 42 1.4  
 Non-Hispanic Asian 25 <1 39 1.3  
 Non-Hispanic Black 1906 42.2 882 28.7  
 Non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 16 <1 <1  
 Non-Hispanic white 1609 35.6 1422 46.2  
 Non-Hispanic multiple 253 5.6 187 6.1  
 Hispanic 532 11.8 456 14.8  
 Unknown 60 1.3 40 1.3  
Gestational age at birth .004 
 Preterm (≤33 wk) 325 7.2 238 7.7  
 Late preterm (34–36 wk) 732 16.2 405 13.2  
 Term (≥37 wk) 3364 74.4 2358 76.7  
 Unknown 77 1.7 54 1.8  
Insurance type <.001 
 None 76 1.7 64 2.1  
 Private 521 11.5 610 19.8  
 Publicb 3394 75.1 1976 64.3  
 Other or combination of public and private 47 1.0 49 1.6  
 Unknown 431 9.5 335 10.9  
Plurality <.001 
 Multiple birth 365 8.1 134 4.4  
 Singleton birth 4113 91.0 2914 94.8  
 Unknown 19 <1 <1  
Sleep environment  
Infant’s found position <.001 
 Supine 1858 41.1 1001 32.6  
 Prone 1373 30.4 1521 49.5  
 Side 729 16.1 373 12.1  
 Unknown 507 11.2 158 5.1  
Infant’s found location     <.001 
 Crib, bassinet, or portable crib 94 2.1 1594 51.8  
 Adult bed 3422 75.7 678 22.0  
 Chair or couch 710 15.7 134 4.4  
 Other 284 6.4 654 21.3  
 Unknown 10 <1 14 <1  
Soft bedding in sleep environmentc <.001 
 Yes 3089 68.3 2270 73.8  
 Not indicated 1431 31.7 805 26.2  
Number of unsafe sleep factors in addition to surface sharingd n n <.001 
 1 811 17.9 822 26.7  
 2 2277 50.4 1436 46.7  
 3 1414 31.3 647 21.0  
 Could not be determined 18 <1 159 5.2  
Other characteristics  
Exposed to maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy <.001 
 Yes 1870 41.4 937 30.5  
 No 2296 50.8 1901 61.8  
 Unknown 307 6.8 196 6.4  
Ever breastfed .23 
 Yes 2425 53.7 1677 54.5  
 No 1708 37.8 1110 36.1  
 Unknown 347 7.7 259 8.4  
Primary caregiver parente <.001 
 Yes 4400 97.3 2920 95.0  
 No 112 2.5 149 4.8  
 Unknown — — 0.0  
Caregiver age in years .06 
 ≤19 425 9.4 267 8.7  
 20–24 1416 31.3 922 30.0  
 25–34 2052 45.4 1390 45.2  
 35+ 469 10.4 345 11.2  
 Unknown 123 2.7 114 3.7  
Supervisor parente <.001 
 Yes 3941 87.2 2228 72.5  
 No 331 7.3 666 21.7  
 Unknown — — — —  
Supervisor impaired by drugs or alcohol at the time of the deathf <.001 
 Yes 736 16.3 144 4.7  
 Not indicated 3784 83.7 2931 95.3  
Open child protective services case on the child at the time of the death .005 
 Yes 485 10.7 329 10.7  
 No 3705 82.0 2579 83.9  
 Unknown 257 5.7 124 4.0  
Crib or bassinet in the infant’s home     <.001 
 Yes 2561 56.7 2328 75.7  
 No 824 18.2 313 10.2  
 Unknown 1035 22.9 391 12.7  
SUID case registry classification system category and suffocation mechanism <.001 
 Explained-suffocation with unsafe sleep factors 881 19.5 677 22.0  
  Soft beddingg 420 47.7 542 80.1  
  Wedgingg 34 3.9 37 5.5  
  Overlayg 250 28.4 — —  
  Otherg or more than 1 indicated 177 20.1 97 14.3  
 Unexplained-possible suffocation with unsafe sleep factors 505 11.2 450 14.6  
 Unexplained-unsafe sleep factors 2047 45.3 1250 40.7  
 Unexplained-no unsafe sleep factors — — 70 2.3  
 Unexplained-incomplete informationh 1083 24.0 628 20.4  
Percent Distribution by Surface Sharing Status
SharingNonsharingPa
 n n  
Overall 4520 59.5 3075 40.5  
Infant demographic and birth characteristics  
Age in months <.001 
 0–3 3307 73.2 1744 56.7  
 4–6 903 20.0 940 30.6  
 7–<12 310 6.9 391 12.7  
Infant sex <.001 
 Male 2536 56.1 1844 60.0  
 Female 1983 43.9 1228 39.9  
Infant race and ethnicity <.001 
 Non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native 118 2.6 42 1.4  
 Non-Hispanic Asian 25 <1 39 1.3  
 Non-Hispanic Black 1906 42.2 882 28.7  
 Non-Hispanic Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 16 <1 <1  
 Non-Hispanic white 1609 35.6 1422 46.2  
 Non-Hispanic multiple 253 5.6 187 6.1  
 Hispanic 532 11.8 456 14.8  
 Unknown 60 1.3 40 1.3  
Gestational age at birth .004 
 Preterm (≤33 wk) 325 7.2 238 7.7  
 Late preterm (34–36 wk) 732 16.2 405 13.2  
 Term (≥37 wk) 3364 74.4 2358 76.7  
 Unknown 77 1.7 54 1.8  
Insurance type <.001 
 None 76 1.7 64 2.1  
 Private 521 11.5 610 19.8  
 Publicb 3394 75.1 1976 64.3  
 Other or combination of public and private 47 1.0 49 1.6  
 Unknown 431 9.5 335 10.9  
Plurality <.001 
 Multiple birth 365 8.1 134 4.4  
 Singleton birth 4113 91.0 2914 94.8  
 Unknown 19 <1 <1  
Sleep environment  
Infant’s found position <.001 
 Supine 1858 41.1 1001 32.6  
 Prone 1373 30.4 1521 49.5  
 Side 729 16.1 373 12.1  
 Unknown 507 11.2 158 5.1  
Infant’s found location     <.001 
 Crib, bassinet, or portable crib 94 2.1 1594 51.8  
 Adult bed 3422 75.7 678 22.0  
 Chair or couch 710 15.7 134 4.4  
 Other 284 6.4 654 21.3  
 Unknown 10 <1 14 <1  
Soft bedding in sleep environmentc <.001 
 Yes 3089 68.3 2270 73.8  
 Not indicated 1431 31.7 805 26.2  
Number of unsafe sleep factors in addition to surface sharingd n n <.001 
 1 811 17.9 822 26.7  
 2 2277 50.4 1436 46.7  
 3 1414 31.3 647 21.0  
 Could not be determined 18 <1 159 5.2  
Other characteristics  
Exposed to maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy <.001 
 Yes 1870 41.4 937 30.5  
 No 2296 50.8 1901 61.8  
 Unknown 307 6.8 196 6.4  
Ever breastfed .23 
 Yes 2425 53.7 1677 54.5  
 No 1708 37.8 1110 36.1  
 Unknown 347 7.7 259 8.4  
Primary caregiver parente <.001 
 Yes 4400 97.3 2920 95.0  
 No 112 2.5 149 4.8  
 Unknown — — 0.0  
Caregiver age in years .06 
 ≤19 425 9.4 267 8.7  
 20–24 1416 31.3 922 30.0  
 25–34 2052 45.4 1390 45.2  
 35+ 469 10.4 345 11.2  
 Unknown 123 2.7 114 3.7  
Supervisor parente <.001 
 Yes 3941 87.2 2228 72.5  
 No 331 7.3 666 21.7  
 Unknown — — — —  
Supervisor impaired by drugs or alcohol at the time of the deathf <.001 
 Yes 736 16.3 144 4.7  
 Not indicated 3784 83.7 2931 95.3  
Open child protective services case on the child at the time of the death .005 
 Yes 485 10.7 329 10.7  
 No 3705 82.0 2579 83.9  
 Unknown 257 5.7 124 4.0  
Crib or bassinet in the infant’s home     <.001 
 Yes 2561 56.7 2328 75.7  
 No 824 18.2 313 10.2  
 Unknown 1035 22.9 391 12.7  
SUID case registry classification system category and suffocation mechanism <.001 
 Explained-suffocation with unsafe sleep factors 881 19.5 677 22.0  
  Soft beddingg 420 47.7 542 80.1  
  Wedgingg 34 3.9 37 5.5  
  Overlayg 250 28.4 — —  
  Otherg or more than 1 indicated 177 20.1 97 14.3  
 Unexplained-possible suffocation with unsafe sleep factors 505 11.2 450 14.6  
 Unexplained-unsafe sleep factors 2047 45.3 1250 40.7  
 Unexplained-no unsafe sleep factors — — 70 2.3  
 Unexplained-incomplete informationh 1083 24.0 628 20.4  

Cell counts between 0 and 6 are suppressed to maintain confidentiality.

A missing response indicates the question was skipped during data entry. An unknown response indicates the question was considered however the information necessary to answer the question was not available to anyone.19 

a

Missing data were excluded from the χ-square analysis. Missing data were <3% for all variables, except for Supervisor Parent (Biological, Adoptive, or Step) with 5% missing data for sharing infants and 6% missing for nonsharing infants.

b

Includes Medicaid, State Plan, Indian Health Service.

c

Excludes the sleep surface (including noncrib mattress and cushion when incident sleep place is couch).

d

Factors include soft bedding; not in a crib, bassinet, or portable crib; and nonsupine position. Zero unsafe sleep factors could not be determined because the soft bedding variable does not distinguish between missing, unknown, and no.

e

Biological, adoptive, or step.

f

Assessment of supervisor drug or alcohol impairment status during the death scene investigation is not standard, and a test (eg, blood or breathalyzer) was not required for the supervisor to be documented as impaired.

g

The mechanisms are defined as follows: soft bedding is when the infant’s airway (nose and mouth) are obstructed by a soft item in the immediate sleep environment; wedging is when the infant’s airway (nose and mouth, neck or chest) is obstructed as a result of being stuck or trapped between inanimate objects; overlay is when the infant’s airway (nose and mouth, neck or chest) is obstructed by a person on top of or against the infant; other is when the infant’s airway is obstructed by something in the sleep environment other than soft bedding, overlay, or wedging (like a plastic bag).

h

Unexplained-incomplete case information and unexplained-no autopsy or death scene investigation categories are collapsed into unexplained-incomplete information.

Infants aged 0 to 3 months made up the largest proportion of sharing (73.2%) and nonsharing infants (56.7%) (Table 1); however, a higher proportion of nonsharing infants were 4 to <12 months (43.3%) as compared with sharing infants (26.8%). Sharing infants were most commonly non-Hispanic Black (42.2%) and nonsharing infants were most commonly non-Hispanic white (46.2%). Publicly insured infants made up the largest proportion of sharing (75.1%) and nonsharing infants (64.3%); however, a higher proportion of nonsharing infants were privately insured (19.8%) as compared with sharing infants (11.5%). The differences between sharing and nonsharing infants in the distribution of infant sex, gestational age, and plurality were not clinically meaningful.

Sharing infants were most often supine (41.1%) and in an adult bed (75.7%); nonsharing infants were most often prone (49.5%) and in a crib (51.8%) (Table 1). Soft bedding in the sleep environment (excluding sleep surface) was common among sharing (68.3%) and nonsharing infants (73.8%). Sharing infants had a larger number of unsafe sleep factors in addition to surface sharing; specifically, 31.3% of sharing infants had all 3 unsafe sleep factors (soft or loose bedding or objects; not in a crib; prone or side position) as compared with 21.0% of nonsharing infants. At least 76% of SUID, regardless of sleep location, had multiple unsafe sleep factors present.

Exposure to prenatal maternal cigarette smoking was more common among sharing (41.4%) than nonsharing infants (30.5%). Being supervised by a parent at time of death was more common among sharing (87.2%) than nonsharing infants (72.5%). Having a supervisor who was impaired by drugs or alcohol was more common among sharing (16.3%) than nonsharing infants (4.7%). Not having a crib in the infant’s home was more common among sharing (18.6%) than nonsharing infants (10.2%) (Table 1). The differences between sharing and nonsharing infants in the distribution of ever breastfed, whether the primary caregiver was a parent, caregiver age, and having an open child protective services case were not clinically meaningful.

The difference between sharing and nonsharing infants with respect to classification system categories was not clinically meaningful. Among deaths categorized as explained-suffocation, the suffocation mechanism of soft bedding was the most common among sharing (47.7%) and nonsharing infants (80.1%). Of surface sharing infants classified as explained-suffocation, 28.4% were attributed to overlay.

Among surface-sharing SUID, 69.4% were sharing with 1 or more adult only, 21.9% with adults and other children, and 7.6% with other children only (Table 2). Among infants sharing with adults only, 75.2% were in an adult bed and 18.7% were on a couch or chair. Among infants sharing with other children only, 47.3% were in an adult bed, 26.9% were in a crib, and 13.0% were on a couch or chair. Among surface-sharing SUID, 51.6% were sharing with 1 other person, 34.9% with 2 other people, and 10.7% with ≥3 other people (not in table).

TABLE 2

Found Location and Person(s) Sharing the Sleep Surface Among Surface Sharing Sudden Unexpected Infant Deaths, SUID Case Registry, 2011 to 2020

Person(s) Sharing Sleep Surface with Infant
TotalAdults OnlyChildren OnlyAdults and ChildrenOther Combinations of Adults, Children, and Petsa
Found locationn%n%n%n%n%
Crib, bassinette or portable crib 94 2.1 — — 91 26.9 — — — — 
Adult bed 3355 75.8 2312 75.2 160 47.3 845 86.9 38 86.4 
Couch or chair 697 15.7 576 18.7 44 13.0 72 7.4 11.4 
Other 283 6.4 — — 43 12.7 55 5.7 — — 
Overall total 4429 — 3075 69.4 338 7.6 972 21.9 44 1.0 
Person(s) Sharing Sleep Surface with Infant
TotalAdults OnlyChildren OnlyAdults and ChildrenOther Combinations of Adults, Children, and Petsa
Found locationn%n%n%n%n%
Crib, bassinette or portable crib 94 2.1 — — 91 26.9 — — — — 
Adult bed 3355 75.8 2312 75.2 160 47.3 845 86.9 38 86.4 
Couch or chair 697 15.7 576 18.7 44 13.0 72 7.4 11.4 
Other 283 6.4 — — 43 12.7 55 5.7 — — 
Overall total 4429 — 3075 69.4 338 7.6 972 21.9 44 1.0 

Select cells are suppressed to maintain confidentiality.

Two percent of total cases have missing or unknown information for incident sleep place and/or type of person sharing a sleep surface and were removed from this table.

A missing response indicates the question was skipped during data entry. An unknown response indicates the question was considered however the information necessary to answer the question was not available to anyone.19 

Adults include infants who were sharing with 1 or more adults; children include infants who were sharing with 1 or more other children.

a

Equal to or less than 6 infants were surface sharing with just a pet.

When comparing sharing and nonsharing infants, the difference in the plurality distribution was not clinically meaningful, however we found larger differences when comparing characteristics by plurality. Surface sharing was more common among multiples; of 499 multiples, 365 (73.1%) were surface sharing, and of 7027 singletons, 4113 (58.5%) were surface sharing (Table 1). Among surface-sharing SUID, multiples were sharing with adults only (23.8%), other children only (34.5%), or adults and other children (38.4%) (Table 3). Surface-sharing singletons were sharing with adults only (72.0%), other children only (5.1%), or adults and other children (20.1%). Infants found in an adult bed made up the largest proportion of surface-sharing multiples (61.1%) and surface-sharing singletons (77.0%). Being found in a crib was more common among surface-sharing multiples (22.2%) than surface-sharing singletons (<1% [n = 13]). The largest proportion of surface-sharing multiples were prone (38.9%), whereas the largest proportion of surface-sharing singletons were supine (41.8%). Finally, as compared with surface-sharing multiples, a larger proportion of surface-sharing singletons had more unsafe sleep factors in addition to surface sharing in their environment; specifically, 25.8% of surface-sharing multiples had all 3 unsafe sleep factors as compared with 31.8% of surface-sharing singletons. Among surface-sharing SUID, the difference between multiples and singletons with respect to having soft bedding in the sleep environment was not clinically meaningful.

TABLE 3

Surface Sharing Characteristics Among Surface Sharing Sudden Expected Infant Deaths by Plurality, SUID Case Registry, 2011 to 2020

MultipleSingletonPa
n%n%
Overall 365 8.2 4113 91.8  
Sharing withb    <.001 
 Adults only 87 23.8 2961 72.0  
 Children only 126 34.5 209 5.1  
 Adults and children 140 38.4 828 20.1  
 Some combination of adults, children, and petsc — — 40 1.0  
Found sleep location     <.001 
 Crib, bassinet, or portable crib 81 22.2 13 <1  
 Adult bed 223 61.1 3166 77.0  
 Chair or couch 36 9.9 670 16.3  
 Otherd 23 6.3 257 6.2  
 Unknown — — <1  
Found position    .001 
 Supine 128 35.1 1720 41.8  
 Prone 142 38.9 1215 29.5  
 Side 49 13.4 675 16.4  
 Unknown 43 11.8 454 11.0  
Soft bedding in sleep environmente .02 
 Yes 264 72.3 2804 68.2  
 Not specified 101 27.7 1309 31.8  
Number of unsafe sleep factorsf <.001 
 1 71 19.5 729 17.7  
 2 192 52.6 2067 50.3  
 3 94 25.8 1308 31.8  
 Could not be determined 2.2 <1  
MultipleSingletonPa
n%n%
Overall 365 8.2 4113 91.8  
Sharing withb    <.001 
 Adults only 87 23.8 2961 72.0  
 Children only 126 34.5 209 5.1  
 Adults and children 140 38.4 828 20.1  
 Some combination of adults, children, and petsc — — 40 1.0  
Found sleep location     <.001 
 Crib, bassinet, or portable crib 81 22.2 13 <1  
 Adult bed 223 61.1 3166 77.0  
 Chair or couch 36 9.9 670 16.3  
 Otherd 23 6.3 257 6.2  
 Unknown — — <1  
Found position    .001 
 Supine 128 35.1 1720 41.8  
 Prone 142 38.9 1215 29.5  
 Side 49 13.4 675 16.4  
 Unknown 43 11.8 454 11.0  
Soft bedding in sleep environmente .02 
 Yes 264 72.3 2804 68.2  
 Not specified 101 27.7 1309 31.8  
Number of unsafe sleep factorsf <.001 
 1 71 19.5 729 17.7  
 2 192 52.6 2067 50.3  
 3 94 25.8 1308 31.8  
 Could not be determined 2.2 <1  

Cell counts between 0 and 6 are suppressed to maintain confidentiality.

One percent of total cases have missing or unknown information for plurality and were removed from this table. 

Missing was <3% for all variables. 

A missing response indicates the question was skipped during data entry. An unknown response indicates the question was considered however the information necessary to answer the question was not available to anyone.19 

a

Missing data were excluded from the χ-square analysis. 

b

Adults include infants who were sharing with 1 or more adults; children include infants who were sharing with 1 or more other children.

c

≤6 infants were surface sharing with just a pet.

d

Includes floor, car seat.

e

Excludes noncrib mattress; excludes cushion when incident sleep place is couch; these variables were only indicated as affirmative in the data as a result, it is not possible to discern between missing, unknown, and no.

f

Factors include soft bedding; not in a crib, bassinet, or portable crib; and prone or side position. Zero unsafe sleep factors could not be determined because the soft bedding variable does not distinguish between missing, unknown, and no.

Overall, 59.5% of SUID were surface sharing when they died; 40.5% were not. These percentages are similar to other studies of SIDS and SUID (49.6% to 64.1%).6,13,14 Surface sharing among live infants ranges from 10.1% to 61.4% depending on study population.2,6,26,30 

Compared with nonsharing infants, sharing infants were more often 0 to 3 months old, non-Hispanic Black, publicly insured, found supine, in an adult bed or chair/couch, with a higher number of unsafe sleep factors (in addition to surface sharing) present, were exposed to prenatal maternal cigarette smoking, were supervised by a parent at time of death, or had a supervisor who was impaired by drugs or alcohol at time of death. Compared with sharing, nonsharing infants were more often >3 months old, non-Hispanic white, privately insured, found prone, in a crib, or had soft bedding in the sleep environment.

Many factors associated with surface sharing among living infants are similar to characteristics we described for surface-sharing SUID. Surface sharing among living infants has been shown to vary by measures of poverty and the following: non-Hispanic Black or racial or ethnic minorities, lower parental education, teenage motherhood, lower income, breastfeeding, maternal smoking, and residential mobility (ie, moved at least once since birth).26,33 

The prevalence of SUID exposed to prenatal maternal cigarette smoking (36.5% among SUID in the Registry; 41.4% among sharing and 30.5% among nonsharing infants) was higher than the 2020 US rate of 5.5% among all births.34 Maternal smoking is a known risk factor for SIDS and SUID, and the risk of SIDS associated with surface sharing increases when 1 or both parents smoke or when the infant’s mother smoked during pregnancy.4,6,35,39 Surface sharing-related risk for SIDS increases 10-fold when surface sharing occurs with a current smoker or if the pregnant parent smoked during pregnancy.1,4,5,40,44 

Breastfeeding is a protective factor against SIDS and mother-infant surface sharing has been encouraged by some to facilitate breastfeeding,4,45,47 despite American Academy Pediatrics (AAP)’s recommendation of nonshared infant sleep surfaces.1,5,48 Among SUID in our study, there was <5% difference between sharing and nonsharing in the proportion of infants ever breastfed. Interpretation of this finding is limited because “ever breastfed” is typically abstracted from the birth certificate, which only documents breastfeeding initiation, and not exclusivity and duration.49 

Multiple births are more likely to be preterm or have low birth weight, increasing the risk of SIDS.4 AAP recommends multiples sleep on separate surfaces.50 However, we found among SUID, surface sharing was more common among multiples than singletons, most often in an adult bed followed by the same crib. Other studies have similarly found multiples more commonly surface share than singletons.51,52 Parents with multiples cite space and financial constraints as reasons for placing their infants to sleep on a shared surface.53 This finding has important implications because multiples are over-represented among SUID, both in our study and US death data. During 2011 to 2020, 5.9% of US SUID were multiples,15 whereas 3.4% of US births were multiples.34 

Although some characteristics were more common among surface sharing or nonsharing infants, and future research may be necessary to identify the etiology of those differences, most SUID had at least 1 unsafe factor in their sleep environment regardless of surface sharing status. Surface sharing in the absence of other unsafe sleep factors was rare. Furthermore, nonsharing infants were commonly in both an unsafe sleep position and with soft bedding in their sleep environment. Thus, surface-sharing in and of itself may not be what caregiver education should focus on. These results support efforts to provide comprehensive safe sleep messaging and not focus solely on not surface sharing, for all families at every encounter.

Clinicians can use evidence from this and previous studies to shape conversations on safe sleep guidance, including understanding motivations for surface sharing2,54,55 and the impact of modeling behavior and giving advice to encourage safe sleep practices.26,56,57 Previously reported reasons for surface sharing included breastfeeding, facilitating better sleep for the infant or mother, calming a fussy infant, convenience, keeping a close watch over the infant, and protection from environmental dangers.2,54,55 African American mothers reported privacy, concern about becoming accustomed to always sleeping in the parents’ bed, and fear about suffocation as reasons for not surface sharing.55 

Most infants in our study were being cared for by a parent when they died. This finding is relevant because parental practices may be influenced by practices observed in the hospital56 or advice from healthcare providers (eg, safe sleep recommendations or smoking cessation)26,57 can impact behavior. Thus, it is critical for healthcare providers to appropriately model and discuss planned and actual infant sleep practices during prenatal visits, birth hospitalization, and postnatal and well-child visits. Engaging parents in discussions about their sleep practices and helping them make decisions to address their concerns and also reduce SUID risk is valuable.

As surface sharing infants more commonly did not have a crib in the home and more often relied on public insurance, when appropriate, pediatricians and other healthcare providers can consider connecting caregivers with free crib distribution programs. These programs can improve safe sleep knowledge and practice.58,60 Additional research is needed to understand how socioeconomic and other social determinants of health influence infant sleep environments and how best to support families in practicing safe infant sleep.61,63 

Our analysis has several limitations. First, sleep environment data depends on availability and accuracy of information documented during death investigation, which relies on witness reports of an often chaotic scene.64 Surface sharing and other unsafe sleep practices may be underreported because of caregiver awareness of safe sleep recommendations and social desirability bias.5 Caregiver reasons for surface sharing were not available. Second, varying data collection methods and bias may influence information documented in the Registry.65 For example, there was no standard assessment (eg, blood or breathalyzer) or documentation of drug and alcohol impairment of infant supervisors. Therefore, bias is possible in drug screening if, for example, low-income or nonwhite caregivers were differentially screened for substance use.66,67 Third, our study population was limited to 23 US states and jurisdictions, which may limit generalizability. However, the Registry represents a third of US SUID and has wide geographic diversity. Fourth, cautious interpretation of crib availability is warranted because of a high number of unknown responses. Finally, we were unable to determine risk because the Registry includes only infant deaths and thus, we lacked an appropriate comparison group (eg, living infants).

Characteristics of surface sharing and nonsharing infants among SUID varied by age at death, race and ethnicity, infant insurance type, and presence of unsafe sleep factors. However, most SUID had multiple unsafe sleep factors present regardless of sharing status. The safest place for an infant to sleep is supine, on a nonshared sleep surface, in a crib or bassinet, and without soft bedding.5 Supporting families in following the AAP recommendations for reducing sleep-related infant deaths5 is complex. Our findings support comprehensive safe sleep counseling for every family at every encounter beyond just asking where an infant is sleeping.

We thank SUID Case Registry awardees (cooperative agreements DP09-904, DP12-1202, DP14-1403, DP15-1506, DP18-1806) in Alaska; Arizona; San Francisco County, California; Colorado; Delaware; Georgia; Cook County, Illinois; Indiana; Kentucky; Louisiana; Maryland; Michigan; Minnesota; New Hampshire; New Jersey; New Mexico; Nevada; Pennsylvania; Tennessee; Utah; Tidewater Region of Virginia; Pierce County, Washington; and Wisconsin. We thank the leadership and data team Abby Collier, Heather Dykstra, and Esther Shaw, at the National Center for Fatality Review and Prevention for their support in preparing data from the NFR-CRS. We thank the Health Resources and Services Administration Maternal and Child Health Bureau for their longstanding support of the child death review programs.

Ms Erck Lambert conceptualized and designed the study, conducted all analyses, and drafted the initial manuscript; Drs Shapiro-Mendoza, Hauck, and Parks, Ms Faulkner, and Ms Cottengim conceptualized and designed the study; and all authors critically reviewed and revised the manuscript, approved the final manuscript as submitted, and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

DISCLAIMER: The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

FUNDING: No external funding.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST DISCLOSURES: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

AAP

American Academy of Pediatrics

CI

confidence interval

NFR-CRS

National Fatality Review-Case Reporting System

SIDS

sudden infant death syndrome

SUID

sudden unexpected infant deaths

1
Vennemann
MM
,
Hense
HW
,
Bajanowski
T
, et al
.
Bed sharing and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome: can we resolve the debate?
J Pediatr
.
2012
;
160
(
1
):
44
8.e2
2
Hauck
FR
,
Signore
C
,
Fein
SB
,
Raju
TN
.
Infant sleeping arrangements and practices during the first year of life
.
Pediatrics
.
2008
;
122
(
Suppl 2
):
S113
S120
3
Rechtman
LR
,
Colvin
JD
,
Blair
PS
,
Moon
RY
.
Sofas and infant mortality
.
Pediatrics
.
2014
;
134
(
5
):
e1293
e1300
4
Moon
RY
,
Carlin
RF
,
Hand
I
;
Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and the Committee on Fetus and Newborn
.
Evidence base for 2022 updated recommendations for a safe infant sleeping environment to reduce the risk of sleep-related infant deaths
.
Pediatrics
.
2022
;
150
(
1
):
e2022057991
5
Moon
RY
,
Carlin
RF
,
Hand
I
;
Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and the Committee on Fetus and Newborn
.
Sleep-related infant deaths: Updated 2022 recommendations for reducing infant deaths in the sleep environment
.
Pediatrics
.
2022
;
150
(
1
):
e2022057990
6
Parks
SE
,
DeSisto
CL
,
Kortsmit
K
,
Bombard
JM
,
Shapiro-Mendoza
CK
.
Risk factors for suffocation and unexplained causes of infant deaths
.
Pediatrics
.
2023
;
151
(
1
):
e2022057771
7
Corey
TS
,
Hanzlick
R
,
Howard
J
,
Nelson
C
,
Krous
H
;
NAME Ad Hoc Committee on Sudden Unexplained Infant Death
.
A functional approach to sudden unexplained infant deaths
.
Am J Forensic Med Pathol
.
2007
;
28
(
3
):
271
277
8
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
.
Underlying cause of death 1999-2020 on CDC WONDER online database, released 2021
. Available at: https://wonder.cdc.gov/ucd-icd10.html. Accessed Feb 7, 2019
9
Moon
RY
;
Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
.
SIDS and other sleep-related infant deaths: evidence base for 2016 updated recommendations for a safe infant sleeping environment
.
Pediatrics
.
2016
;
138
(
5
):
e20162940
10
Erck Lambert
AB
,
Parks
SE
,
Cottengim
C
,
Faulkner
M
,
Hauck
FR
,
Shapiro-Mendoza
CK
.
Sleep-related infant suffocation deaths attributable to soft bedding, overlay, and wedging
.
Pediatrics
.
2019
;
143
(
5
):
e20183408
11
Carpenter
R
,
McGarvey
C
,
Mitchell
EA
, et al
.
Bed sharing when parents do not smoke: is there a risk of SIDS? An individual level analysis of five major case-control studies
.
BMJ Open
.
2013
;
3
(
5
):
e002299
12
Parks
SE
,
Erck Lambert
AB
,
Hauck
FR
,
Cottengim
CR
,
Faulkner
M
,
Shapiro-Mendoza
CK
.
Explaining sudden unexpected infant deaths, 2011-2017
.
Pediatrics
.
2021
;
147
(
5
):
e2020035873
13
Hauck
FR
,
Herman
SM
,
Donovan
M
, et al
.
Sleep environment and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome in an urban population: the Chicago Infant Mortality Study
.
Pediatrics
.
2003
;
111
(
5 Pt 2
):
1207
1214
14
Schnitzer
PG
,
Covington
TM
,
Dykstra
HK
.
Sudden unexpected infant deaths: sleep environment and circumstances
.
Am J Public Health
.
2012
;
102
(
6
):
1204
1212
15
United States Department of Health and Human Services (US DHHS), Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), Division of Vital Statistics (DVS)
.
Linked birth / infant death records 2007–2021
. Available at: https://wonder.cdc.gov/lbd.html. Accessed March 24, 2023
16
Shapiro-Mendoza
CK
,
Camperlengo
LT
,
Kim
SY
,
Covington
T
.
The sudden unexpected infant death case registry: a method to improve surveillance
.
Pediatrics
.
2012
;
129
(
2
):
e486
e493
17
Covington
TM
.
The US National Child Death review case reporting system
.
Inj Prev
.
2011
;
17
(
Suppl 1
):
i34
i37
18
National Center for Fatality Review and Prevention
.
National center program manual
. Available at: https://ncfrp.org/wp-content/uploads/NCRPCD-Docs/ProgramManual.pdf. Accessed March 24, 2023
19
National Center for Fatality Review and Prevention
.
Guidance for improving child death review data quality
. Available at: https://ncfrp.org/wp-content/uploads/NCRPCD-Docs/GuidanceImprovingCDRDataQuality.pdf. Accessed March 24, 2023
20
The National Center for the Review and Prevention of Child Death
.
National fatality review case reporting system data dictionary, version 5.0
. https://www.ncfrp.org/wp-content/uploads/NCRPCD-Docs/DataDictionary_v5.pdf. Accessed February 7, 2019
21
Curtin
SC
,
Tolson
G
,
Arias
E
,
Anderson
RN
.
Funeral Director’s Handbook: Death Registration and Fetal Death Reporting
.
National Center for Health Statistics
;
2019
22
Flanagin
A
,
Frey
T
,
Christiansen
SL
;
AMA Manual of Style Committee
.
Updated guidance on the reporting of race and ethnicity in medical and science journals
.
JAMA
.
2021
;
326
(
7
):
621
627
23
Jindal
M
,
Trent
M
,
Mistry
KB
.
The intersection of race, racism, and child and adolescent health
.
Pediatr Rev
.
2022
;
43
(
8
):
415
425
24
Shapiro-Mendoza
CK
,
Camperlengo
L
,
Ludvigsen
R
, et al
.
Classification system for the Sudden Unexpected Infant Death Case Registry and its application
.
Pediatrics
.
2014
;
134
(
1
):
e210
e219
25
Wasserstein
RL
,
Lazar
NA
.
The ASA statement on p-values: context, process, and purpose
.
Am Stat
.
2016
;
70
(
2
):
129
133
26
Hirai
AH
,
Kortsmit
K
,
Kaplan
L
, et al
.
Prevalence and factors associated with safe infant sleep practices
.
Pediatrics
.
2019
;
144
(
5
):
e20191286
27
Colson
ER
,
Willinger
M
,
Rybin
D
, et al
.
Trends and factors associated with infant bed sharing, 1993-2010: the National Infant Sleep Position Study
.
JAMA Pediatr
.
2013
;
167
(
11
):
1032
1037
28
Bombard
JM
,
Kortsmit
K
,
Warner
L
, et al
.
Vital signs: trends and disparities in infant safe sleep practices - United States, 2009–2015
.
MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep
.
2018
;
67
(
1
):
39
46
29
Fu
LY
,
Colson
ER
,
Corwin
MJ
,
Moon
RY
.
Infant sleep location: associated maternal and infant characteristics with sudden infant death syndrome prevention recommendations
.
J Pediatr
.
2008
;
153
(
4
):
503
508
30
Fu
LY
,
Moon
RY
,
Hauck
FR
.
Bed sharing among black infants and sudden infant death syndrome: interactions with other known risk factors
.
Acad Pediatr
.
2010
;
10
(
6
):
376
382
31
Brenner
RA
,
Simons-Morton
BG
,
Bhaskar
B
,
Revenis
M
,
Das
A
,
Clemens
JD
.
Infant-parent bed sharing in an inner-city population
.
Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med
.
2003
;
157
(
1
):
33
39
32
Weimer
SM
,
Dise
TL
,
Evers
PB
,
Ortiz
MA
,
Welldaregay
W
,
Steinmann
WC
.
Prevalence, predictors, and attitudes toward cosleeping in an urban pediatric center
.
Clin Pediatr (Phila)
.
2002
;
41
(
6
):
433
438
33
McCoy
RC
,
Hunt
CE
,
Lesko
SM
, et al
.
Frequency of bed sharing and its relationship to breastfeeding
.
J Dev Behav Pediatr
.
2004
;
25
(
3
):
141
149
34
United States Department of Health and Human Services (US DHHS)
.
Natality public-use data 2007–2022
. In:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), Division of Vital Statistics
. Available at: https://wonder.cdc.gov/natality.html. Accessed March 2, 2023
35
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
.
The health consequences of smoking: a report of the surgeon general
. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44695/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK44695.pdf. Accessed March 24, 2023
36
Blair
PS
,
Fleming
PJ
,
Bensley
D
, et al
;
Confidential Enquiry into Stillbirths and Deaths Regional Coordinators and Researchers
.
Smoking and the sudden infant death syndrome: results from 1993-5 case-control study for confidential inquiry into stillbirths and deaths in infancy
.
BMJ
.
1996
;
313
(
7051
):
195
198
37
Anderson
TM
,
Lavista Ferres
JM
,
Ren
SY
, et al
.
Maternal smoking before and during pregnancy and the risk of sudden unexpected infant death
.
Pediatrics
.
2019
;
143
(
4
):
e20183325
38
Mitchell
EA
,
Thompson
JM
,
Zuccollo
J
, et al
.
The combination of bed sharing and maternal smoking leads to a greatly increased risk of sudden unexpected death in infancy: the New Zealand SUDI Nationwide case control study
.
N Z Med J
.
2017
;
130
(
1456
):
52
64
39
Hauck
FR
,
Blackstone
SR
.
Maternal smoking, alcohol and recreational drug use and the risk of SIDS among a US urban Black populations
.
Front Pediatr
.
2022
;
10
:
809966
40
Blair
PS
,
Fleming
PJ
,
Smith
IJ
, et al
.
Babies sleeping with parents: case-control study of factors influencing the risk of the sudden infant death syndrome. CESDI SUDI research group
.
BMJ
.
1999
;
319
(
7223
):
1457
1461
41
Fleming
PJ
,
Blair
PS
,
Bacon
C
, et al
;
Confidential Enquiry into Stillbirths and Deaths Regional Coordinators and Researchers
.
Environment of infants during sleep and risk of the sudden infant death syndrome: results of 1993-5 case-control study for confidential inquiry into stillbirths and deaths in infancy
.
BMJ
.
1996
;
313
(
7051
):
191
195
42
Scragg
R
,
Mitchell
EA
,
Taylor
BJ
, et al
;
New Zealand Cot Death Study Group
.
Bed sharing, smoking, and alcohol in the sudden infant death syndrome
.
BMJ
.
1993
;
307
(
6915
):
1312
1318
43
Blair
PS
,
Sidebotham
P
,
Pease
A
,
Fleming
PJ
.
Bed-sharing in the absence of hazardous circumstances: is there a risk of sudden infant death syndrome? An analysis from two case-control studies conducted in the UK
.
PLoS One
.
2014
;
9
(
9
):
e107799
44
Arnestad
M
,
Andersen
M
,
Vege
A
,
Rognum
TO
.
Changes in the epidemiological pattern of sudden infant death syndrome in southeast Norway, 1984-1998: implications for future prevention and research
.
Arch Dis Child
.
2001
;
85
(
2
):
108
115
45
Blair
PS
,
Ball
HL
,
McKenna
JJ
,
Feldman-Winter
L
,
Marinelli
KA
,
Bartick
MC
;
Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine
.
Bedsharing and breastfeeding: The Academy of Breastfeeding medicine protocol #6, revision 2019
.
Breastfeed Med
.
2020
;
15
(
1
):
5
16
46
Huang
Y
,
Hauck
FR
,
Signore
C
, et al
.
Influence of bedsharing activity on breastfeeding duration among US mothers
.
JAMA Pediatr
.
2013
;
167
(
11
):
1038
1044
47
Bartick
M
,
Smith
LJ
.
Speaking out on safe sleep: evidence-based infant sleep recommendations
.
Breastfeed Med
.
2014
;
9
(
9
):
417
422
48
The National Archives
.
Health Statistics Quarterly - report: unexplained deaths in infancy, 2006
. Available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20160105160709/http:/www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/hsq/health-statistics-quarterly/no--39--autumn-2008/index.html. Accessed March 24, 2023
49
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
.
Breastfeeding initiation rates and maps by county
. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/data/county/breastfeeding-initiation-rates.html. Accessed March 24, 2023
50
Moon
RY
;
Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
.
SIDS and other sleep-related infant deaths: expansion of recommendations for a safe infant sleeping environment
.
Pediatrics
.
2011
;
128
(
5
):
1030
1039
51
Damato
EG
,
Haas
MC
,
Czeck
P
,
Dowling
DA
,
Barsman
SG
.
Safe sleep infant care practices reported by mothers of twins
.
Adv Neonatal Care
.
2016
;
16
(
6
):
E3
E14
52
Hutchison
BL
,
Stewart
AW
,
Mitchell
EA
.
The prevalence of cobedding and SIDS-related child care practices in twins
.
Eur J Pediatr
.
2010
;
169
(
12
):
1477
1485
53
Ball
H
.
Caring for twin infants: sleeping arrangements and their implications
.
Evid Based Midwifery
.
2006
;
4
(
1
)
54
Gilmour
H
,
Ramage-Morin
PL
,
Wong
SL
.
Infant bed sharing in Canada
.
Health Rep
.
2019
;
30
(
7
):
13
19
55
Joyner
BL
,
Oden
RP
,
Ajao
TI
,
Moon
RY
.
Where should my baby sleep: a qualitative study of African American infant sleep location decisions
.
J Natl Med Assoc
.
2010
;
102
(
10
):
881
889
56
Gelfer
P
,
Cameron
R
,
Masters
K
,
Kennedy
KA
.
Integrating “back to sleep” recommendations into neonatal ICU practice
.
Pediatrics
.
2013
;
131
(
4
):
e1264
e1270
57
Stead
LF
,
Buitrago
D
,
Preciado
N
,
Sanchez
G
,
Hartmann-Boyce
J
,
Lancaster
T
.
Physician advice for smoking cessation
.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev
.
2013
;
2013
(
5
):
CD000165
58
Hauck
FR
,
Tanabe
KO
,
McMurry
T
,
Moon
RY
.
Evaluation of bedtime basics for babies: a national crib distribution program to reduce the risk of sleep-related sudden infant deaths
.
J Community Health
.
2015
;
40
(
3
):
457
463
59
Salm Ward
TC
,
McClellan
MM
,
Miller
TJ
,
Brown
S
.
Evaluation of a crib distribution and safe sleep educational program to reduce risk of sleep-related infant death
.
J Community Health
.
2018
;
43
(
5
):
848
855
60
Salm Ward
TC
,
Miller
TJ
,
Naim
I
.
Evaluation of a multisite safe infant sleep education and crib distribution program
.
Int J Environ Res Public Health
.
2021
;
18
(
13
):
6956
61
Freemantle
CJ
,
Read
AW
,
de Klerk
NH
,
McAullay
D
,
Anderson
IP
,
Stanley
FJ
.
Patterns, trends, and increasing disparities in mortality for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal infants born in Western Australia, 1980–2001: population database study
.
Lancet
.
2006
;
367
(
9524
):
1758
1766
62
Shipstone
R
,
Young
J
,
Kearney
L
.
New frameworks for understanding sudden unexpected deaths in infancy (sudi) in socially vulnerable families
.
J Pediatr Nurs
.
2017
;
37
:
35
41
63
Fleming
P
,
Blair
P
,
Bacon
C
,
Berry
J
.
Sudden Unexpected Death in Infancy. The Cesdi Sudi Studies 1993–1996
.
The Stationery Office
;
2000
64
Mitchell
RA
Jr
,
DiAngelo
C
,
Morgan
D
.
Medicolegal death investigation of sudden unexpected infant deaths
.
Pediatr Ann
.
2017
;
46
(
8
):
e297
e302
65
Erck Lambert
AB
,
Parks
SE
,
Camperlengo
L
, et al
.
Death scene investigation and autopsy practices in sudden unexpected infant deaths
.
J Pediatr
.
2016
;
174
:
84
90.e1
66
Kerker
BD
,
Horwitz
SM
,
Leventhal
JM
.
Patients’ characteristics and providers’ attitudes: predictors of screening pregnant women for illicit substance use
.
Child Abuse Negl
.
2004
;
28
(
2
):
209
223
67
Kunins
HV
,
Bellin
E
,
Chazotte
C
,
Du
E
,
Arnsten
JH
.
The effect of race on provider decisions to test for illicit drug use in the peripartum setting
.
J Womens Health (Larchmt)
.
2007
;
16
(
2
):
245
255