Neuropsychological Performance of EP Young Adults and Term-Born Controls
| . | EP (n = 127), Mean ± SD . | Term-Born Controls (n = 64), Mean ± SD . | EP Females Versus Male Participants, Mean Difference (95% CI) . | EP Versus Term, Mean Difference (95% CI) . | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Male . | Female . | All . | Male . | Female . | All . | Unadjusted . | Adjusted for SES . | Unadjusted** . | Adjusted for Sex and SES** . | Adjusted for Sex, SES, and Othersa . | Cohen’s d . | |
| IQ WASIb | ||||||||||||
| FSIQc | 82.8 ± 17.7 (n = 59) | 88.6 ± 15.5 (n = 68) | 85.9 ± 16.7 (n = 127) | 104.4 ± 11.9 (n = 25) | 103.6 ± 9.2 (n = 39) | 103.9 ± 10.2 (n = 64) | 5.8 (−0.0 to 11.6) | 5.3 (−0.8 to 11.5) | −18.0 (−22.5 to −13.5) | −17.8 (−22.3 to −13.2) | — | 1.21 |
| VCIc | 85.9 ± 16.9 (n = 59) | 91.5 ± 13.2 (n = 68) | 88.9 ± 15.2 (n = 127) | 102.4 ± 11.3 (n = 25) | 102.3 ± 9.1 (n = 39) | 102.4 ± 9.9 (n = 64) | 5.6 (0.3 to 10.9)* | 5.1 (−0.4 to 10.7) | −13.4 (−17.6 to −9.3) | −13.2 (−17.4 to −9.0) | — | 0.98 |
| PRIc | 83.0 ± 18.6 (n = 57) | 87.7 ± 17.6 (n = 68) | 85.6 ± 18.1 (n = 125) | 105.4 ± 12.8 (n = 25) | 103.9 ± 10.3 (n = 39) | 104.5 ± 11.3 (n = 64) | 4.7 (−1.7 to 11.1) | 4.6 (2.2 to 11.4) | −18.9 (−23.8 to −14.0) | −19.0 (−24.0 to −14.0) | — | 1.17 |
| Beery VMI | ||||||||||||
| Visuomotor integration | 73.4 ± 17.1 (n = 55) | 79.7 ± 16.9 (n = 68) | 76.9 ± 16.9 (n = 123) | 90.4 ± 11.5 (n = 25) | 92.8 ± 8.3 (n = 39) | 91.8 ± 9.7 (n = 64) | 6.3 (0.3 to 12.4)* | 5.9 (−0.6 to 12.3) | −15.0 (−19.5 to −10.4) | −14.4 (−19.0 to −9.8) | — | 1.00 |
| Visual perception | 82.7 ± 15.2 (n = 55) | 83.8 ± 17.1 (n = 68) | 83.3 ± 16.2 (n = 123) | 98.4 ± 7.2 (n = 25) | 96.0 ± 7.6 (n = 39) | 97.0 ± 7.5 (n = 64) | 1.2 (−4.7 to 7.0) | 0.3 (−5.9 to 6.4) | −13.7 (−17.9 to −9.4) | −13.6 (−18.0 to −9.3) | — | 0.98 |
| Motor coordination | 67.7 ± 17.2 (n = 55) | 78.7 ± 15.7 (n = 68) | 73.8 ± 16.9 (n = 123) | 85.8 ± 11.0 (n = 25) | 93.3 ± 8.6 (n = 39) | 90.3 ± 10.2 (n = 64) | 11.0 (5.2 to 16.8)* | 10.6 (4.5 to 16.6)* | −16.5 (−21.1 to −12.0) | −15.5 (−19.9 to −11.1) | — | 1.10 |
| Verbal fluency | ||||||||||||
| Letter F | 7.2 ± 3.3 (n = 56) | 7.4 ± 3.8 (n = 68) | 7.3 ± 3.6 (n = 124) | 11.0 ± 4.9 (n = 25) | 11.2 ± 3.8 (n = 39) | 11.1 ± 4.2 (n = 64) | 0.2 (−1.1 to 1.5) | 0.3 (−1.0 to 1.7) | −3.8 (−4.9 to −2.6) | −3.8 (−5.0 to −2.6) | — | 0.99 |
| Letter A | 6.4 ± 3.1 (n = 56) | 6.6 ± 3.4 (n = 68) | 6.5 ± 3.3 (n = 124) | 10.0 ± 4.2 (n = 25) | 9.1 ± 3.6 (n = 39) | 9.5 ± 3.8 (n = 64) | 0.2 (−1.0 to 1.3) | 0.2 (−1.0 to 1.4) | −3.0 (−4.1 to −1.9) | −3.0 (−4.1 to −2.0) | — | 0.86 |
| Letter S | 8.7 ± 3.5 (n = 56) | 10.0 ± 4.5 (n = 68) | 9.4 ± 4.1 (n = 124) | 13.4 ± 3.8 (n = 25) | 12.6 ± 3.9 (n = 39) | 12.9 ± 3.8 (n = 64) | 1.3 (−0.2 to 2.7) | 1.4 (−0.2 to 2.9) | −3.5 (−4.8 to −2.3) | −3.6 (−4.8 to −2.3) | — | 0.87 |
| PVF total | 22.3 ± 8.5 (n = 56) | 24.0 ± 10.6 (n = 68) | 23.2 ± 9.7 (n = 124) | 34.4 ± 11.6 (n = 25) | 33.0 ± 9.7 (n = 39) | 33.5 ± 10.4 (n = 64) | 1.7 (−1.8 to 5.1) | 1.9 (−1.7 to 5.5) | −10.3 (−13.4 to −7.3) | −10.4 (−13.5 to −7.3) | — | 1.03 |
| SVF | 16.2 ± 5.6 (n = 56) | 17.1 ± 5.9 (n = 67) | 16.7 ± 5.8 (n = 123) | 22.3 ± 5.7 (n = 25) | 20.1 ± 5.9 (n = 39) | 21.0 ± 5.9 (n = 64) | 1.0 (−1.1 to 3.1) | 1.2 (−0.8 to 3.1) | −4.3 (−6.0 to −2.5) | −4.3 (−6.0 to −2.5) | — | 0.73 |
| Verbal memoryd | ||||||||||||
| Short-term memory | 8.6 ± 2.8 (n = 56) | 8.1 ± 2.8 (n = 68) | 8.3 ± 2.8 (n = 124) | 10.2 ± 3.3 (n = 25) | 10.4 ± 3.0 (n = 39) | 10.3 ± 3.1 (n = 64) | −0.5 (−1.5 to 0.5) | −0.7 (−1.7 to 0.3) | −2.0 (−2.9 to −1.1) | −2.0 (−2.9 to -1.1) | — | 0.69 |
| Working memory | 8.2 ± 2.5 (n = 56) | 8.5 ± 2.6 (n = 67) | 8.3 ± 2.6 (n = 123) | 10.1 ± 3.0 (n = 25) | 10.7 ± 2.9 (n = 39) | 10.5 ± 2.9 (n = 64) | 0.3 (−0.7 to 1.2) | 0.3 (−0.6 to 1.3) | −2.1 (−2.9 to −1.3) | −2.1 (−2.9 to −1.3) | −1.1 (−1.9 to −0.4)* | 0.78 |
| Visuo-spatial memorye | ||||||||||||
| Short-term memory | 82.3 ± 14.8 (n = 52) | 82.2 ± 13.5 (n = 65) | 82.2 ± 14.1 (n = 117) | 97.9 ± 15.5 (n = 24) | 95.7 ± 15.0 (n = 39) | 96.5 ± 15.1 (n = 63) | −0.1 (−5.3 to 5.1) | −0.9 (−6.4 to 4.6) | −14.4 (−18.8 to −9.9) | −14.0 (−18.5 to −9.4) | — | 0.99 |
| Working memory | 87.8 ± 12.4 (n = 49) | 87.4 ± 12.5 (n = 64) | 87.6 ± 12.4 (n = 113) | 103.3 ± 15.9 (n = 23) | 102.5 ± 15.7 (n = 39) | 102.8 ± 15.6 (n = 62) | −0.5 (−5.2 to 4.2) | −1.5 (−6.3 to 3.5) | −15.2 (−19.5 to −11.0) | −15.1 (−19.5 to −10.7) | −8.1 (−12.0 to −4.2)** | 1.11 |
| . | EP (n = 127), Mean ± SD . | Term-Born Controls (n = 64), Mean ± SD . | EP Females Versus Male Participants, Mean Difference (95% CI) . | EP Versus Term, Mean Difference (95% CI) . | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Male . | Female . | All . | Male . | Female . | All . | Unadjusted . | Adjusted for SES . | Unadjusted** . | Adjusted for Sex and SES** . | Adjusted for Sex, SES, and Othersa . | Cohen’s d . | |
| IQ WASIb | ||||||||||||
| FSIQc | 82.8 ± 17.7 (n = 59) | 88.6 ± 15.5 (n = 68) | 85.9 ± 16.7 (n = 127) | 104.4 ± 11.9 (n = 25) | 103.6 ± 9.2 (n = 39) | 103.9 ± 10.2 (n = 64) | 5.8 (−0.0 to 11.6) | 5.3 (−0.8 to 11.5) | −18.0 (−22.5 to −13.5) | −17.8 (−22.3 to −13.2) | — | 1.21 |
| VCIc | 85.9 ± 16.9 (n = 59) | 91.5 ± 13.2 (n = 68) | 88.9 ± 15.2 (n = 127) | 102.4 ± 11.3 (n = 25) | 102.3 ± 9.1 (n = 39) | 102.4 ± 9.9 (n = 64) | 5.6 (0.3 to 10.9)* | 5.1 (−0.4 to 10.7) | −13.4 (−17.6 to −9.3) | −13.2 (−17.4 to −9.0) | — | 0.98 |
| PRIc | 83.0 ± 18.6 (n = 57) | 87.7 ± 17.6 (n = 68) | 85.6 ± 18.1 (n = 125) | 105.4 ± 12.8 (n = 25) | 103.9 ± 10.3 (n = 39) | 104.5 ± 11.3 (n = 64) | 4.7 (−1.7 to 11.1) | 4.6 (2.2 to 11.4) | −18.9 (−23.8 to −14.0) | −19.0 (−24.0 to −14.0) | — | 1.17 |
| Beery VMI | ||||||||||||
| Visuomotor integration | 73.4 ± 17.1 (n = 55) | 79.7 ± 16.9 (n = 68) | 76.9 ± 16.9 (n = 123) | 90.4 ± 11.5 (n = 25) | 92.8 ± 8.3 (n = 39) | 91.8 ± 9.7 (n = 64) | 6.3 (0.3 to 12.4)* | 5.9 (−0.6 to 12.3) | −15.0 (−19.5 to −10.4) | −14.4 (−19.0 to −9.8) | — | 1.00 |
| Visual perception | 82.7 ± 15.2 (n = 55) | 83.8 ± 17.1 (n = 68) | 83.3 ± 16.2 (n = 123) | 98.4 ± 7.2 (n = 25) | 96.0 ± 7.6 (n = 39) | 97.0 ± 7.5 (n = 64) | 1.2 (−4.7 to 7.0) | 0.3 (−5.9 to 6.4) | −13.7 (−17.9 to −9.4) | −13.6 (−18.0 to −9.3) | — | 0.98 |
| Motor coordination | 67.7 ± 17.2 (n = 55) | 78.7 ± 15.7 (n = 68) | 73.8 ± 16.9 (n = 123) | 85.8 ± 11.0 (n = 25) | 93.3 ± 8.6 (n = 39) | 90.3 ± 10.2 (n = 64) | 11.0 (5.2 to 16.8)* | 10.6 (4.5 to 16.6)* | −16.5 (−21.1 to −12.0) | −15.5 (−19.9 to −11.1) | — | 1.10 |
| Verbal fluency | ||||||||||||
| Letter F | 7.2 ± 3.3 (n = 56) | 7.4 ± 3.8 (n = 68) | 7.3 ± 3.6 (n = 124) | 11.0 ± 4.9 (n = 25) | 11.2 ± 3.8 (n = 39) | 11.1 ± 4.2 (n = 64) | 0.2 (−1.1 to 1.5) | 0.3 (−1.0 to 1.7) | −3.8 (−4.9 to −2.6) | −3.8 (−5.0 to −2.6) | — | 0.99 |
| Letter A | 6.4 ± 3.1 (n = 56) | 6.6 ± 3.4 (n = 68) | 6.5 ± 3.3 (n = 124) | 10.0 ± 4.2 (n = 25) | 9.1 ± 3.6 (n = 39) | 9.5 ± 3.8 (n = 64) | 0.2 (−1.0 to 1.3) | 0.2 (−1.0 to 1.4) | −3.0 (−4.1 to −1.9) | −3.0 (−4.1 to −2.0) | — | 0.86 |
| Letter S | 8.7 ± 3.5 (n = 56) | 10.0 ± 4.5 (n = 68) | 9.4 ± 4.1 (n = 124) | 13.4 ± 3.8 (n = 25) | 12.6 ± 3.9 (n = 39) | 12.9 ± 3.8 (n = 64) | 1.3 (−0.2 to 2.7) | 1.4 (−0.2 to 2.9) | −3.5 (−4.8 to −2.3) | −3.6 (−4.8 to −2.3) | — | 0.87 |
| PVF total | 22.3 ± 8.5 (n = 56) | 24.0 ± 10.6 (n = 68) | 23.2 ± 9.7 (n = 124) | 34.4 ± 11.6 (n = 25) | 33.0 ± 9.7 (n = 39) | 33.5 ± 10.4 (n = 64) | 1.7 (−1.8 to 5.1) | 1.9 (−1.7 to 5.5) | −10.3 (−13.4 to −7.3) | −10.4 (−13.5 to −7.3) | — | 1.03 |
| SVF | 16.2 ± 5.6 (n = 56) | 17.1 ± 5.9 (n = 67) | 16.7 ± 5.8 (n = 123) | 22.3 ± 5.7 (n = 25) | 20.1 ± 5.9 (n = 39) | 21.0 ± 5.9 (n = 64) | 1.0 (−1.1 to 3.1) | 1.2 (−0.8 to 3.1) | −4.3 (−6.0 to −2.5) | −4.3 (−6.0 to −2.5) | — | 0.73 |
| Verbal memoryd | ||||||||||||
| Short-term memory | 8.6 ± 2.8 (n = 56) | 8.1 ± 2.8 (n = 68) | 8.3 ± 2.8 (n = 124) | 10.2 ± 3.3 (n = 25) | 10.4 ± 3.0 (n = 39) | 10.3 ± 3.1 (n = 64) | −0.5 (−1.5 to 0.5) | −0.7 (−1.7 to 0.3) | −2.0 (−2.9 to −1.1) | −2.0 (−2.9 to -1.1) | — | 0.69 |
| Working memory | 8.2 ± 2.5 (n = 56) | 8.5 ± 2.6 (n = 67) | 8.3 ± 2.6 (n = 123) | 10.1 ± 3.0 (n = 25) | 10.7 ± 2.9 (n = 39) | 10.5 ± 2.9 (n = 64) | 0.3 (−0.7 to 1.2) | 0.3 (−0.6 to 1.3) | −2.1 (−2.9 to −1.3) | −2.1 (−2.9 to −1.3) | −1.1 (−1.9 to −0.4)* | 0.78 |
| Visuo-spatial memorye | ||||||||||||
| Short-term memory | 82.3 ± 14.8 (n = 52) | 82.2 ± 13.5 (n = 65) | 82.2 ± 14.1 (n = 117) | 97.9 ± 15.5 (n = 24) | 95.7 ± 15.0 (n = 39) | 96.5 ± 15.1 (n = 63) | −0.1 (−5.3 to 5.1) | −0.9 (−6.4 to 4.6) | −14.4 (−18.8 to −9.9) | −14.0 (−18.5 to −9.4) | — | 0.99 |
| Working memory | 87.8 ± 12.4 (n = 49) | 87.4 ± 12.5 (n = 64) | 87.6 ± 12.4 (n = 113) | 103.3 ± 15.9 (n = 23) | 102.5 ± 15.7 (n = 39) | 102.8 ± 15.6 (n = 62) | −0.5 (−5.2 to 4.2) | −1.5 (−6.3 to 3.5) | −15.2 (−19.5 to −11.0) | −15.1 (−19.5 to −10.7) | −8.1 (−12.0 to −4.2)** | 1.11 |
—, not applicable.
Mean differences in verbal working memory and visuospatial working memory when further adjusting for verbal short-term memory and visuospatial short-term memory, respectively.
IQ WASI indicates the WASI-II.
PRI.
Verbal short-term and working memory indicates digit span forward and backward tasks from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition.
Visuospatial short-term and working memory indicates the dot matrix and spatial recall tasks from the AWMA.
*P < .05
**P < .001.